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inconsistent　features　in　their　career；　for　it　was　they　who　best　understood　affairs；　from　whom

others　learned；　and　approved；　or　at　least　acquiesced　in　their　policy。　For　that　Spirit　which　had

taken　this　fresh　step　in　history　is　the　inmost　soul　of　all　individuals；　but　in　a　state　of　unconsciousness

which　the　great　men　in　question　aroused。　Their　fellows；　therefore；　follow　these　soul…leaders；　for

they　feel　the　irresistible　power　of　their　own　inner　Spirit　thus　embodied。　If　we　go　on　to　cast　a　look

at　the　fate　of　these　World…Historical　persons；　whose　vocation　it　was　to　be　the　agents　of　the

World…Spirit；　—　we　shall　find　it　to　have　been　no　happy　one。　They　attained　no　calm　enjoyment；

their　whole　life　was　labour　and　trouble；　their　whole　nature　was　nought　else　but　their

master…passion。　When　their　object　is　attained　they　fall　off　like　empty　hulls　from　the　kernel。　They

die　early；　like　Alexander；　they　are　murdered；　like　Caesar；　transported　to　St。　Helena。；　like

Napoleon。　This　fearful　consolation　—　that　historical　men　have　not　enjoyed　what　is　called

happiness；　and　of　which　only　private　life　（and　this　may　be　passed　under　very　various　external

circumstances）　is　capable；　—　this　consolation　those　may　draw　from　history；　who　stand　in　need　of

it；　and　it　is　craved　by　Envy　—　vexed　at　what　is　great　and　transcendent；　—　striving；　therefore；　to

depreciate　it；　and　to　find　some　flaw　in　it。　Thus　in　modern　times　it　has　been　demonstrated　ad

nauseam　that　princes　are　generally　unhappy　on　their　thrones；　in　consideration　of　which　the

possession　of　a　throne　is　tolerated；　and　men　acquiesce　in　the　fact　that　not　themselves　but　the

personages　in　question　are　its　occupants。　The　Free　Man；　we　may　observe；　is　not　envious；　but

gladly　recognises　what　is　great　and　exalted；　and　rejoices　that　it　exists。

§　34

It　is　in　the　light　of　those　mon　elements　which　constitute　the　interest　and　therefore　the　passions

of　individuals；　that　these　historical　men　are　to　be　regarded。　They　are　great　men；　because　they

willed　and　acplished　something　great；　not　a　mere　fancy；　a　mere　intention；　but　that　which　met

the　case　and　fell　in　with　the　needs　of　the　age。　This　mode　of　considering　them　also　excludes　the

so…called　“psychological”　view；　which　—　serving　the　purpose　of　envy　most　effectually　…　contrives

so　to　refer　all　actions　to　the　heart；　—　to　bring　them　under　such　a　subjective　aspect　—　as　that　their

authors　appear　to　have　done　everything　under　the　impulse　of　some　passion；　mean　or　grand；　—

some　morbid　craving；　—　and　on　account　of　these　passions　and　cravings　to　have　been　not　moral

men。　Alexander　of　Macedon　partly　subdued　Greece；　and　then　Asia；　therefore　he　was　possessed

by　a　morbid　craving　for　conquest。　He　is　alleged　to　have　acted　from　a　craving　for　fame；　for

conquest；　and　the　proof　that　these　were　the　impelling　motives　is　that　he　did　that　which　resulted　in

fame。　What　pedagogue　has　not　demonstrated　of　Alexander　the　Great　—　of　Julius　Caesar　—　that

they　were　instigated　by　such　passions；　and　en；　—　whence　the

conclusion　immediately　follows　that　he；　the　pedagogue；　is　a　better　man　than　they；　because　he　has

not　such　passions；　a　proof　of　which　lies　in　the　fact　that　he　does　not　conquer　Asia；　—　vanquish

Darius　and　Porus；　—　but　while　he　enjoys　life　himself　lets　others　enjoy　it　too。　These　psychologists

are　particularly　fond　of　contemplating　those　peculiarities　of　great　historical　figures　which　appertain

to　them　as　private　persons。　Man　must　eat　and　drink；　he　sustains　relations　to　friends　and

acquaintances；　he　has　passing　impulses　and　ebullitions　of　temper。　“No　man　is　a　hero　to　his

valet…de…chambre；”　is　a　well…known　proverb；　I　have　added　—　and　Goethe　repeated　it　ten　years

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