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hneither　prehends　by　itself　nor　by　the　showing　of　others；　the　first　isthe　most　excellent；　the　second　is　good；　the　third　is　useless。　Therefore；it　follows　necessarily　that；　if　Pandolfo　was　not　in　the　first　rank；　hewas　in　the　second；　for　whenever　one　has　judgment　to　know　good　or　badwhen　it　is　said　and　done；　although　he　himself　may　not　have　theinitiative；　yet　he　can　recognize　the　good　and　the　bad　in　his　servant；and　the　one　he　can　praise　and　the　other　correct；　thus　the　servant　cannothope　to　deceive　him；　and　is　kept　honest。But　to　enable　a　prince　to　form　an　opinion　of　his　servant　there　is　oest　which　never　falls；　when　you　see　the　servant　thinking　more　of　hisown　interests　than　of　yours；　and　seeking　inwardly　his　own　profit　ineverything；　such　a　man　will　never　make　a　good　servant；　nor　will　you　everbe　able　to　trust　him；　because　he　who　has　the　state　of　another　in　hishands　ought　never　to　think　of　himself；　but　always　of　his　prince；　andnever　pay　any　attention　to　matters　in　which　the　prince　is　not　concerned。On　the　other　to　keep　his　servant　honest　the　prince　ought　to　study　him；honouring　him；　enriching　him；　doing　him　kindnesses；　sharing　with　him　thehonours　and　cares；　and　at　the　same　time　let　him　see　that　he　cannot　standalone；　so　that　many　honours　not　make　him　desire　more；　many　riches　makehim　wish　for　more；　and　that　many　cares　may　make　him　dread　changes。　When；therefore；　servants；　and　princes　towards　servants；　are　thus　disposed；they　can　trust　each　other；　but　when　it　is　otherwise；　the　end　will　alwaysbe　disastrous　for　either　one　or　the　other。CHAPTER　XXIIIHOW　FLATTERERS　SHOULD　BE　AVOIDEDI　DO　NOT　wish　to　leave　out　an　important　branch　of　this　subject；　for　itis　a　danger　from　which　princes　are　with　difficulty　preserved；　unlessthey　are　very　careful　and　discriminating。　It　is　that　of　flatterers；　ofwhom　courts　arc　full；　because　men　are　so　self…placent　in　their　ownaffairs；　and　in　a　way　so　deceived　in　them；　that　they　are　preserved　withdifficulty　from　this　pest；　and　if　they　wish　to　defend　themselves　theyrun　the　danger　of　falling　into　contempt。　Because　there　is　no　other　wayof　guarding　oneself　from　flatterers　except　letting　men　understand　thatto　tell　you　the　truth　does　not　offend　you；　but　when　every　one　may　tellyou　the　truth；　respect　for　you　abates。Therefore　a　wise　prince　ought　to　hold　a　third　course　by　choosing　thewise　men　in　his　state；　and　giving　to　them　only　the　liberty　of　speakingthe　truth　to　him；　and　then　only　of　those　things　of　which　he　inquires；and　of　none　others；　but　he　ought　to　question　them　upon　everything；　andlisten　to　their　opinions；　and　afterwards　form　his　own　conclusions。　Withthese　councillors；　separately　and　collectively；　he　ought　to　carryhimself　in　such　a　way　that　each　of　them　should　know　that；　the　morefreely　he　shall　speak；　the　more　he　shall　be　preferred；　outside　of　these；he　should　listen　to　no　one；　pursue　the　thing　resolved　on；　and　besteadfast　in　his　resolutions。　He　who　does　otherwise　is　either　overthrownby　flatterers；　or　is　so　often　changed　by　varying　opinions　that　he　fallsinto　contempt。I　wish　on　this　subject　to　adduce　a　modern　example。　Fra　Luca；　the　man　ofaffairs　to　Maximilian；　the　present　emperor；　speaking　of　his　majesty；said：　He　consulted　with　no　one；　yet　never　got　his　own　way　in　anything。This　arose　because　of　his　following　a　practice　the　opposite　to　theabove；　for　the　emperor　is　a　secretive　man　……　he　does　not　municate　hisdesigns　to　any　one；　nor　does　he　receive　opinions　on　them。　But　as　incarrying　them　into　effect　they　bee　revealed　and　known；　they　are　atonce　obstructed　by　those　men　whom　he　has　around　him；　and　he；　beingpliant；　is　diverted　from　them。　Hence　it　follows　that　those　things　hedoes　one　day　he　undoes　the　next；　and　no　one　ever　understands　what　hewishes　or　intends　to　do；　and　no　one　can　rely　on　his　resolutions。A　prince；　therefore；　ought　always　to　take　counsel；　but　only　when　hewishes　and　not　when　others　wish；　he　ought　rather　to　discourage　every　onefrom　offering　advice　unless　he　asks　it；　but；　however；　he　ought　to　be　aconstant　inquirer；　and　afterwards　a　patient　listener　concerning　thethings　of　which　he　inquired；　also；　on　learning　that　any　one；　on　anyconsideration；　has　not　told　him　the　truth；　he　should　let　his　anger　befelt。And　if　there　are　some　who　think　that　a　prince　who　conveys　an　impressionof　his　wisdom　is　not　so　through　his　own　ability；　but　through　the　goodadvisers　that　he　has　around　him；　beyond　doubt　they　are　deceived；　becausethis　is　an　axiom　which　never　fails：　that　a　prince　who　is　not　wisehimself　will　never　take　good　advice；　unless　by　chance　he　has　yielded　hisaffairs　entirely　to　one　person　who　happens　to　be　a　very　prudent　man。　Inthis　case　indeed　he　may　be　well　governed；　but　it　would　not　be　for　long；because　such　a　governor　would　in　a　short　time　take　away　his　state　fromhim。But　if　a　prince　who　is　not　experienced　should　take　counsel　from　morethan　one　he　will　never　get　united　counsels；　nor　will　he　know　how　tounite　them。　Each　of　the　counsellors　will　think　of　his　own　interests；　andthe　prince　will　not　know　how　to　control　them　or　to　see　through　them。　Andthey　are　not　to　be　found　otherwise；　because　men　will　always　prove　untrueto　you　unless　they　are　kept　honest　by　constraint。　Therefore　it　must　beinferred　that　good　counsels；　whencesoever　they　e；　are　born　of　thewisdom　of　the　prince；　and　not　the　wisdom　of　the　prince　from　goodcounsels。CHAPTER　XXIVTHE　PRINCES　OF　ITALY　HAVE　LOST　THEIR　STATESTHE　previous　suggestions；　carefully　observed；　will　enable　a　new　princeto　appear　well　established；　and　render　him　at　once　more　secure　and　fixedin　the　state　than　if　he　had　been　long　seated　there。　For　the　actions　of　anew　prince　are　more　narrowly　observed　than　those　of　an　hereditary　one；and　when　they　are　seen　to　be　able　they　gain　more　men　and　bind　fartighter　than　ancient　blood；　because　men　are　attracted　more　by　thepresent　than　by　the　past；　and　when　they　find　the　present　good　they　enjoyit　and　seek　no　further；　they　will　also　make　the　utmost　defence　for　aprince　if　he　fails　them　not　in　other　things。　Thus　it　will　be　a　doubleglory　to　him　to　have　established　a　new　principality；　and　adorned　andstrengthened　it　with　good　laws；　good　arms；　good　allies；　and　with　a　goodexample；　so　will　it　be　a　double　disgrace　to　him　who；　born　a　prince；shall　lose　his　state　by　want　of　wisdom。And　if　those　seigniors　are　considered　who　have　lost　their　states　inItaly　in　our　times；　such　as　the　King　of　Naples；　the　Duke　of　Milan；　andothers；　there　will　be　found　in　them；　firstly；　one　mon　defect　inregard　to　arms　from　the　causes　which　have　been　discussed　at　length；　inthe　next　place；　some　one　of　them　will　be　seen；　either　to　have　had　thepeople　hostile；　or　if　he　has　had　the　people　friendly；　he　has　not　knownhow　to　secure　the　nobles。　In　the　absence　of　these　defects　states　thathave　power　enough　to　keep　an　army　in　the　field　cannot　be　lost。Philip　of　Macedon；　not　the　father　of　Alexander　the　Great；　but　he　who　wasconquered　by　Titus　Quintius；　had　not　much　territory　pared　to　thegreatness　of　the　Romans　and　of　Greece　who　attacked　him；　yet　being　awarlike　man　who　knew　how　to　attract　the　people　and　secure　the　nobles；　hesustained　the　war　against　his　enemies　for　many　years；　and　if　in　the　endhe　lost　the　dominion　of　some　cities；　nevertheless　he　retained　thekingdom。Therefore；　do　not　let　our　princes　accuse　fortune　for　the　loss　of　theirprincipalities　after　so　many　years　possession；　but　rather　their　oes　they　never　thought　there　could　be　a　change（it　is　a　mon　defect　in　man　not　to　make　any　provision　in　the　calmagainst　the　tempest）；　and　when　afterwards　the　bad　times　came　theythought　of　flight　and　not　of　defending　themselves；　and　they　hoped　thatthe　people；　disgusted　with　the　insolence　of　the　conquerors；　would　recallthem。　This　course；　when　others　fail；　may　be　good；　but　it　is　very　bad　tohave　neglected　all　other　expedients　for　that；　since　you　would　never　wishto　fall　because　you　trusted　to　be　able　to　find　someone　later　on　torestore　you。　This　again　either　does　not　happen；　or；　if　it　does；　it　willnot　be　for　your　security；　because　that　deliverance　is　of　no　avail　whichdoes　not　depend　upon　yourself；　those　only　are　reliable；　certain；　anddurable　that　depend　on　yourself　and　your　valour。CHAPTER　XXVWHAT　FORTUNE　CAN　EFFECT　IN　HUMAN　AFFAIRS；　AND　HOW　TO　WITHSTAND　HERIT　is　not　unknown　to　me　how　many　men　have　had；　and　still　have；　theopinion　that　the　affairs　of　the　world　are　in　such　wise　governed　byfortune　and　by　God　that　men　with　their　wisdom　cannot　direct　them　andthat　no　one　can　even　help　them；　and　because　of　this　they　would　have　usbelieve　that　it　is　not　necessary　to　labour　much　in　affairs；　but　to　letchance　govern　them。　This　opinion　has　been　more　credited　in　our　timesbecause　of　the　great　changes　in　affairs　which　have　been　seen；　and　maystill　be　seen；　every　day；　beyond　all　human　conjecture。　Sometimespondering　over　this；　I　am　in　some　degree　inclined　to　their　opinion。Nevertheless；　not　to　extinguish　our　free　will；　I　hold　it　to　be　true　thatFortune　is　the　arbiter　of　one…half　of　our　actions；　but　that　she　stillleaves　us　to　direct　the　other　half；　or　perhaps　a　little　less。I　pare　her　to　one　of　those　raging　rivers；　which　when　in　floodoverflows　the　plains；　sweeping　away　trees　and　buildings；　bearing　awaythe　soil　from　place　to　place；　everything　flies　before　it；　all　yield　toits　violence；　without　being　able　in　any　way　to　withstand　it；　and　yet；though　its　nature　be　such；　it　does　not　follow　therefore　that　men；　whenthe　weather　bees　fair；　shall　not　make　provision；　both　with　defencesand　barriers；　in　such　a　manner　that；　rising　again；　the　waters　may　passaway　by　canal；　and　their　force　be　neither　so　unrestrained　nor　sodangerous。　So　it　happens　with　fortune；　who　shows　her　power　where　valourhas　not　prepared　to　resist　her；　and　thither　she　turns　her　forces　whereshe　knows　that　barriers　and　defences　have　not　been　raised　to　constrainher。And　if　you　will　consider　Italy；　which　is　the　seat　of　these　changes；　andwhich　has　given　to　them　their　impulse；　you　will　see　it　to　be　an　opencountry　without　barriers　and　without　any　defence。　For　if　it　had　beendefended　by　proper　valour；　as　are　Germany；　Spain；　and　France；　eitherthis　invasion　would　not　have　made　the　great　changes　it　has　made　or　itwould　not　have　e　at　all。　And　this　I　consider　enough　to　say　concerningresistance　to　fortune　in　general。But　confining　myself　more　to　the　particular；　I　say　that　a　prince　may　beseen　happy　to…day　and　ruined　to…morrow　without　having　shown　any　changeof　disposition　or　character。　This；　I　believe；　arises　firstly　from　causesthat　have　already　been　discussed　at　length；　namely；　that　the　prince　whorelies　entirely　upon　fortune　is　lost　when　it　changes。　I　believe　alsothat　he　will　be　successful　who　directs　his　actions　according　to　thespirit　of　the　times；　and　that　he　whose　actions　do　not　accord　with　thetimes　will　not　be　successful。　Because　men　are　seen；　in　affairs　that　leadto　the　end　which　every　man　has　before　him；　namely；　glory　and　riches；　toget　there　by　various　methods；　one　with　caution；　another　with　haste；　oneby　force；　another　by　skill；　one　by　patience；　another　by　its　opposite；and　each　one　succeeds　in　reaching　the　goal　by　a　different　method。　Onecan　also　see　of　two　cautious　men　the　one　attain　his　end；　the　other　fail；and　similarly；　two　men　by　different　observances　are　equally　successful；the　one　being　cautious；　the　other　impetuous；　all　this　arises　fromnothing　else　than　whether　or　not　they　conform　in　their　methods　to　thespirit　of　the　times。　This　follows　from　what　I　have

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